When several small pre-Roman settlements came together to form the city of Pompeii in the 4th century BC, no one could have imagined that this place would one day be one of the best-preserved examples of ancient life. Centuries later, possibly on August 24, 79 AD, as Pliny's eyewitness account suggests, the thriving life of the city was buried under ash and pumice within hours.

Pompeii was located in Campania, a region with fertile volcanic soil. Its proximity to Mount Vesuvius allowed for productive agriculture with olives, wine, fruit and vegetables. The city was prosperous thanks to trade and agriculture and had a diverse urban life. Public buildings such as temples, basilicas and thermal baths bear witness to representative architecture and social interaction. The everyday life of the inhabitants was characterized by economic activity, religious practices and convivial moments.

It is not only the wealth of income from agriculture and horticulture, but also the exquisite design of the residential buildings that indicates the high standards of this society. Inner courtyards with water features, marble statues and frescoes depicting scenes from mythology and everyday life provided an insight into an existence that combined comfort with culture. The townscape was dotted with taverns, workshops and small stores that supported lively social interaction. Gardens and arcades provided shade, while business negotiations and family celebrations took place in atriums.

The Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder, who observed the last chapter of Pompeii at close quarters, reported not only on the destructive power of the volcano, but also on the impressive living environment that fell victim to it. The sudden destruction of Pompeii buried the city under ashes - and at the same time preserved a picture of everyday Roman life that no written document could ever convey.

Thanks to archaeological excavations, we now know how multifaceted life in Pompeii was. In addition to impressive architecture, the excavations have also brought to light numerous everyday objects: precious bronzes, lamps, tools, coins, jewelry, amphorae with names scratched into them. Every single piece tells a personal story - of love and work, of superstition and hope, of family traditions or economic ambition.

Today, Pompeii is not just a place of remembrance. The city preserves an idea of how ancient life was organized, shaped and lived - not through tradition, but through the sudden standstill left behind by the catastrophe.

A fictitious eyewitness account by Pliny Secundus, called the Elder - inspired by his nephew's surviving letters on the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.

I was sitting in my writing room in Misenum, engrossed in my natural history manuscripts, when a messenger entered hastily, his face pale and his voice trembling: "A cloud over Vesuvius - towering like a pine tree! They say it's growing into the sky."

“Nubes - incertum procul intuentibus ex quo monte - oriebatur, cuius similitudinem et formam non alia magis arbor quam pinus expresserit.” (Pliny the Younger, Epistulae 6.16.4)


“A cloud - from a distance we did not know which mountain it came from - rose, whose shape and form most resembled a pine tree.”

I put down the pen. The apparition was unusual - a cloud of rare shape and size, erect like a tree. At first I thought it was just a natural phenomenon. But then the news reached me: people at the foot of Mount Vesuvius were asking for help. The only way to get there was by sea. As commander of the Misenum fleet, it was not only my duty but also my innermost concern to act - where there was danger.

A small convoy was prepared. While the crew were tightening the oars, the sky rose into a gloomy curtain. The smell of sulphur was everywhere and a hot wind blew across the sea. The ash rain had already begun. In Stabiae, where my friends were seeking shelter, day had turned to night.

As we docked, women rushed to us with scarves over their heads, children were crying. “The earth is shaking,” someone shouted, and indeed - the ground trembled beneath our feet.

I ordered the people to be brought on board. Many hesitated - for fear of leaving their loved ones or possessions behind. But the fear was greater. They clung to house altars, begging the gods for mercy. I spoke to them, but their trust in the gods was stronger than my words. Some stayed behind, others ran over.

“Alii parentes, alii liberos vocant; hi vocibus, illi manibus significabant.” (Plin. ep. 6.20.7)

“Some called for their parents, others for their children; some with words, others with gestures.”

A fiery rain fell, accompanied by thunderclaps such as I had never heard. I pulled my scarf tighter around my nose and mouth to filter out the acrid smoke. My chest burned with pain - it was the poisonous gases pouring down from the mountain. I stayed behind to save others. But my strength left me. Then I sank down.

I was found later - without any external injuries, under the protection of a sheet. My nephew will tell how I died: not out of fear, but in an effort to act and help. If my name remains, then perhaps as someone who stayed when others left - not out of duty, but because it seemed right to stand by the weak.

“Corpus inventum est integrum, inlaesum, opertum ut fuerat vestibus: habitus corporis quiescenti quam defuncto similior.”

(Plin. ep. 6.16.13)

“The body was found intact, uninjured and clothed - as it had been in life; its posture resembled that of a sleeping person rather than that of a deceased person.”

Pompeii combined functional planning with creative aspirations - a combination that can be seen in the street layout as well as in architectural details. The surviving city layout suggests that Pompeii was laid out according to a systematic grid: wide streets made of local volcanic rock - mostly Vesuvian basalt - criss-crossed the area in a largely regular grid. The paving consisted of carefully laid stone blocks whose surfaces were smoothed by decades of use and deeply marked by the wheel tracks of Roman carts. Raised stepping stones made it possible to walk dry-footed in the rain or on dirty paths - an indication of practical experience and urban planning. An ingenious supply system ensured access to fresh water.

Public fountains were located at strategically favorable points, fed by the Aqua Augusta aqueduct, which reached Pompeii from the early 1st century BC at the latest. The water reached selected households via supply pipes, with private connections being regulated by lead pipes with a fixed diameter. Control of the water supply - for example by limiting flow times - is known from Rome, but is not clearly documented for Pompeii. Wastewater was drained via open channels along the sidewalks and collected at lower points - a simple but functioning cycle that made urban life possible.

The façades of the houses concealed an astonishing variety of living arrangements. While the upper floors housed rental rooms with a simple floor plan, the first floor was occupied by spacious residential buildings with a vestibule, atrium, impluvium and peristyle. Inner courtyards with gardens, house altars, water basins and porticoes not only created a pleasant indoor climate, but also revealed the social status of the owners.

The walls were painted in color, sometimes with scenes from mythology, everyday life or fictional architecture - sometimes with illusionistic effects that simulated depth where the room ended. The house was a place of representation and meeting: business deals were negotiated, clients received and parties celebrated here.

Markets, temples, thermal baths, taverns and workshops characterized the cityscape just as much as quiet gardens or public buildings along the main axes. The living space was no coincidence, but the result of a culture that harmonized technology, sensual pleasure and social order in its own way.

Pompeii was not a perfect city - but one that functioned on the scale of its time. The combination of technical sophistication, architectural ambition and the pragmatic organization of everyday life today allows a unique view of urban life in antiquity - a view that no written document alone could ever have conveyed so concretely.

Pompeii was a city of pleasure - and at the same time a center of trade and work. Behind the ornately painted facades, an economic life unfolded that was characterized by local production, supra-regional trade connections and a dense infrastructure. Taverns, workshops, stalls and warehouses lined the streets. They supplied the city's population and were also part of an exchange of goods that extended far beyond the borders of Campania.

Archaeological finds bear witness to this lively business activity: clay amphorae with carved marks and stamps can be traced back to Hispania, Gaul and North Africa. Wine, oil, fish sauces and grain were traded in the storerooms and taprooms - often

from distant provinces that connected the empire with flows of goods. The finds of coins, weights, sales registers and measuring vessels indicate a well-organized, often standardized economic system that required trust, control and mobility.

In the craft workshops, not only everyday items were produced, but also fine items: bronze casters, stonemasons, weavers, dyers and potters worked with skill and experience - many in family businesses whose rooms combined living and working under one roof. The bakeries were particularly numerous: More than thirty have been archaeologically proven, often equipped with an oven, dough trough and rotating millstones powered by donkeys or

slaves. Charred loaves of bread in a baking room bear witness to an ordinary morning, frozen by the catastrophe in the midst of preparing for the day.

The financial sector was also represented: Over 150 wax tablets with receipts, promissory bills and money orders were discovered in the house of Lucius Caecilius Iucundus, a banker. They provide rare insights into mortgage transactions, inheritances and urban construction activity.

What remained after the volcanic eruption are signs of work, exchange and organization - frozen in a moment. Perhaps this is precisely where the special value of this place lies: in making the ordinary visible.

The walls and floors of wealthy households were sometimes decorated with figurative and ornamental depictions. In living rooms, atriums and garden areas, scenes from mythology and everyday life, architectural illusions as well as geometric patterns and colorful fields can be found. The design created a certain atmosphere and revealed the aesthetic preferences and cultural values of the inhabitants.

Pompeian wall painting can be divided - in simplified form - into four main styles, as described by August Mau in the 19th century: the first style imitates marble cladding, the second shows illusionistic architecture and deep spaces. The third style emphasizes areas of colour and central pictorial fields, while the fourth combines elements of the previous styles with rich ornamentation. Mythological scenes, architecture, still lifes and figure paintings are depicted.

A completely preserved frieze in the Villa dei Misteri shows a multi-part sequence of scenes with life-size figures on a red background. The exact interpretation has not yet been conclusively clarified; a connection with cultic or family rites is being discussed. The execution, colors and spatial composition make this sequence of images one of the most impressive examples of Roman wall painting.

Mosaics were mainly used as floor coverings in Pompeii. They range from simple black and white ornaments to complex figurative representations. The so-called Alexander Mosaic from the House of Faun is one of the best-known examples: It shows a dynamic battle scene with two mounted generals, presumably including Alexander the Great and Darius III. The composition consists of around 1.5 million tesserae. Stylistic features indicate that the mosaic goes back to a lost Hellenistic painting.

In addition to large-format depictions, there are numerous smaller mosaics with animal motifs, theater masks or inscriptions. The well-known dog mosaic with the inscription “Cave Canem” is located in the entrance area of a house and was embedded there so that it was visible to visitors. Another mosaic with maritime motifs comes from a dining room in the Casa del Fauno. It shows various species of fish in rich detail.

The wall and floor decorations provide an insight into artistic preferences, pictorial themes, design traditions and the functional use of rooms in the Roman imperial period.

Public amusements were an integral part of urban life in Pompeii. The archaeological remains of theaters, thermal baths, the amphitheatre and other public buildings provide information about forms of leisure, physical activity and social interaction in everyday urban life.

The large theater in the southwest of Pompeii was partially built into the natural slope and offered space for around 5,000 spectators. The complex had a stage with an elaborately designed stage wall (scaenae frons), a semi-circular orchestra pit and a tiered auditorium (cavea) with seating arranged according to social groups. Tragedies, comedies and other dramatic forms were performed. The furnishings and maintenance measures provide evidence of regular use.

Next to it is a smaller, originally roofed theater with around 1,500 seats, which is often referred to as the odeion. It was probably used for musical and literary performances. Both theaters were open to the public and were part of a monumental group of buildings with a covered colonnaded courtyard (quadriporticus), which was originally used as a promenade and recreation area.

The amphitheater of Pompeii is located on the south-eastern outskirts of the city. It was built around 70 BC under the duumviri Quinctius Valgus and Marcius Porcius and is considered to be the oldest preserved stone amphitheater in the Roman world.

With around 20,000 seats, the amphitheater of Pompeii clearly exceeded the city's population at the time. The complex follows the typical structure with an elliptical arena, stepped spectator stands (cavea) and a surrounding enclosure wall. Inscriptions, graffiti and wall paintings - particularly from the area of the adjacent gladiator school (ludus) - document the names and fame of individual fighters and testify to their popularity.

Finds of game materials such as dice, tokens and board game boards show that games were also played in the private sphere. Game boards were sometimes carved into the floor of hallways, thresholds or public squares.

Thermal baths such as the Stabian Baths, the Forum Baths and the Suburban Baths were places of personal hygiene and at the same time centers of social encounters. With changing rooms, open courtyards and relaxation areas, the thermal baths not only offered space for personal hygiene, but also for conversation and socializing.

Public facilities were part of everyday urban life and were important places for meeting, socializing and regeneration. They facilitated communal experiences and at the same time strengthened the population's ties to local officials and the imperial order. Satisfied citizens were regarded as the basis for stability and social cohesion in the Roman Empire.

The excavations in Pompeii provide unusually concrete insights into individual lives. Inscriptions, wall graffiti, ownership notes, wax tablets and portraits document the names, activities and social roles of the city's inhabitants.

One example of this is a wall portrait from house VI 14.25. It shows a married couple - a woman with a pen and wax tablet and a man with a scroll. The painting comes from a representation room near the entrance area. An inscription on the same building bears the name of a Terentius Neo, who probably owned the house at the time of the outbreak. The depiction is not inscribed, so a direct identification remains open. The painting is considered one of the best-preserved portraits from Roman everyday life and is now in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale in Naples (inv. no. 9084).

An extensive archive belonging to the banker Lucius Caecilius Iucundus was found in House V 1.26. It comprises 154 wax tablets documenting business transactions from the years 53 to 62 AD. These include payment receipts, auction proceeds and levies in connection with urban construction projects. The panels provide insights into economic practices and contracts in a Roman city of the imperial era.

Numerous graffiti document announcements and personal messages in the cityscape of Pompeii. In addition to political election appeals, there are references to gladiator fights, prize notices and verses. The inscriptions were mostly applied to facades with red or black paint or carved directly into fresh plaster. Their linguistic form ranges from colloquial Latin to poetic lines and abbreviated spellings.

Material finds from private households complete the picture of individual living conditions. Tools with signs of use, pieces of jewelry with engraved names, key rings, purses and toys show the material equipment of different social groups. In one case, a bag of coins was recovered in the hallway of a residential building, apparently left behind in the rush to escape. Children's toys made of terracotta or wood are also known from several find contexts.

These documents and objects allow an approach to individuals - not in the sense of complete biographies, but as concrete evidence of action, possession and memory. Pompeii thus provides a unique ensemble of sources for researching individual traces of life in an ancient city.

The Stabian Baths in Pompeii are among the best-preserved and earliest examples of Roman bathing culture. Built shortly after 80 BC, they were rebuilt several times in the 1st century AD and in particular extended the separate women's section, whose apodyterium (changing room) was decorated with inlays and wall paintings. The carefully ritualized bathing of a wealthy woman of the city begins here - atmospherically imaginable and documented by structural remains.

Accompanied by a slave, a lady, the wife of a magistrate, enters the apodyterium. Her tunic is carefully removed and her hair tied in a knot. The servant carries personal care utensils in a small basket: fine glass bottles of scented oil, bronze tweezers, a bone cosmetic spatula and a cylindrical Roman ceramic ointment jar.

The path continues through the tepidarium (lukewarm bath) into the caldararium, where hot steam opens the pores and softens the skin. Here, the body is cleansed with fragrant soap and sweat and oil are removed with a strigilis (scraping iron) - a process that combines cleansing and massage. The bath is followed by the actual beauty ritual: the slave opens one of the small, artistically crafted glass bottles and applies a fragrant essence to her mistress's shoulders, neck and hair.

Imported scented oils with rose, nard or myrrh were particularly popular at this time, as they were not only nurturing but also a sign of taste and sophistication.

A filigree cosmetic set was used to apply various beauty products: a light-colored foundation was often applied based on lead white or alabaster, supplemented by lip color made of red iron oxide and kohl made of charcoal or antimony compounds. The hairstyle was then formed into an elaborate updo using hairpins made of bronze, bone or ivory - a style that has been preserved in wall paintings such as in the Casa dei Vettii or in contemporary marble portraits.

Bathing was much more than hygiene in Roman everyday life: it was a social ritual, relaxation, beauty culture - and not least an expression of status. The surviving finds from Pompeii - from simple terracotta alb vessels to ornate glass flacons - illustrate the diversity of women's lives, in which fragrance and care played a central role. For collectors and museums, these objects are remnants of a cultivated everyday life in which personal hygiene and aesthetics were closely linked to identity and social affiliation.

The destruction of Pompeii by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD marks one of the best-documented catastrophic events of antiquity. Thanks to the preservative effect of the volcanic deposits, not only buildings, wall paintings, and everyday objects were preserved, but also numerous human victims.

The Roman writer Pliny the Younger described the eruption, which he witnessed from the neighboring town of Misenum, in two letters to the historian Tacitus. His reports are considered the main source for reconstructing the events. They describe a high column of ash, increasing tremors in the ground, darkness in broad daylight – and how the sea unexpectedly receded.

The eruption was a so-called Plinian phase, followed by pyroclastic flows, ash rain, and gas emissions. First, pumice and fine ash settled over several hours, causing roofs to collapse and blocking escape routes. Later, pyroclastic flows – hot avalanches of gas and rock – rolled over the city and buried large parts of Pompeii beneath them. The number of fatalities cannot be determined with certainty. To date, more than 1,100 human remains have been documented in Pompeii. Some of them show protective postures or signs of escape movements.

Particularly well known are the so-called plaster casts, which were made from the late 19th century onwards using Giuseppe Fiorelli's technique: liquid plaster was poured into places where organic material had decayed but the cavity in the pumice stone remained. This created plastic negatives of human postures in their final moments.

The plaster casts show adults, children, and pets. They were found in homes as well as on streets, in workshops, and in gardens. Based on the contexts in which they were found, it is possible in many cases to reconstruct locations, activities, or directions of movement, although it is not possible to make definitive statements about individual identities.

Pompeii was not repopulated after the eruption. In Roman sources, the place appears only as a landmark. Its rediscovery began in the 18th century under the rule of the Bourbons. Systematic excavations followed from the 19th century onwards, partly under methodologically variable conditions. Since the 20th century, the focus has been increasingly on the conservation of the substance.

Today, Pompeii is an international field of research. The legacy of death has not only contributed to the exploration of ancient life, but also to ethical debates about the treatment of human remains, the culture of remembrance, and archaeological visibility.